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Lei Meng

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18 papers

2 author rows

AAAI Conference 2026 Conference Paper

Explicit Modeling of Causal Factors and Confounders for Image Classification

Wei Wu
Lei Meng
Zhuang Qi
Zixuan Li
Yachong Zhang
Xiaoshuo Yan
Xiangxu Meng

Causal inference has emerged as a promising approach for identifying decisive semantic factors and eliminating spurious correlations in visual representation learning. However, most existing methods rely on latent, data-driven confounder modeling, normally attributing the source of bias to background information while neglecting object-level semantic confusions that commonly occur in complex scenes. This limits their effectiveness in disentangling causal factors from confounding semantics. To address this challenge, we propose an explicit modeling approach for both causal factors and confounders, termed Explicit Modeling Causal Model (EMCM). The proposed framework consists of three key components. The Features Stability Estimation module explicitly models the relationship between visual semantics and class labels by leveraging clustering patterns to perform class-aware separation of causal and confounding factors. It produces class-specific causal factors and confounding factors linked to ambiguous categories. Subsequently, the Discriminative Features Enhancing module integrates causal factors into fused patch features via front-door intervention for stable semantics. In parallel, the Explicit Confounder Modeling and Debiasing Module learns confounders under clear label guidance and derives debiased context features by TDE modeling. This framework leverages two complementary causal perspectives to construct a unified semantic representation that facilitates improved generalization. Extensive experiments on two datasets demonstrate that EMCM effectively disentangles causal and confounding factors in complex scenarios, consistently outperforming state-of-the-art causal debiasing methods and text-guided methods in all metrics.

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AAAI Conference 2026 Conference Paper

Introducing Decomposed Causality with Spatiotemporal Object-Centric Representation for Video Classification

Yachong Zhang
Lei Meng
Shuo Xu
Zhuang Qi
Wei Wu
Lei Wu
Xiangxu Meng

Video classification requires event-level representations of objects and their interactions. Existing methods typically rely on data-driven approaches, which either learn such features from whole frames or object-centric visual regions. Therefore, the modeling of spatiotemporal interactions among objects is usually overlooked. To address this issue, this paper presents a Decomposition of Synergistic, Unique, and Redundant Causal Representations Learning (SurdCRL) model for video classification, which introduces a newly-proposed SURD causal theory to model the spatiotemporal features of both object dynamics and their in- and cross-frame interactions. Specifically, SurdCRL employs three modules to model the object-centric spatiotemporal dynamics using distinct types of causal components, where the first module Spatial-Temporal Entity Modeling decouples the frame into object and context entities, and employs a temporal message passing block to capture object state changes over time, generating spatiotemporal features as basic causal variables. Second, the Dual-Path Causal Inference module mitigates confounders among causal variables by front-door and back-door interventions, thus enabling the subsequent causal components to reflect their intrinsic effects. Finally, the Causal Composition and Selection module employs the compositional structure-aware attention to project the causal variables and their high-order interactions into the synergistic, unique, and redundant components. Experiments on two benchmarking datasets verify that SurdCRL better captures event-relevant object-centric representation by decomposing spatiotemporal object interactions into three types of causal components.

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AAAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Causal Inference over Visual-Semantic-Aligned Graph for Image Classification

Lei Meng
Xiangxian Li
Xiaoshuo Yan
Haokai Ma
Zhuang Qi
Wei Wu
Xiangxu Meng

Incorporating tagging information to regularize the representation learning of images usually leads to improved performance in image classification by aligning the visual features with the textual ones of higher discriminative power. Existing methods typically follow the predictive approach, which uses tags as the semantic labels for visual input to make predictions. However, they typically face the problem of handling the heterogeneity between modalities. In order to learn accurate visual-semantic mapping, this paper presents a visual-semantic causal association modeling framework termed VSCNet. It aligns visual regions with tags, uses a pre-learned hierarchy of visual and semantic exemplars to refine tag predictions and constructs an augmented heterogeneous graph to perform causal intervention. Specifically, the fine-grained visual-semantic alignment (FVA) module adaptively locates the semantic-intensive regions corresponding to tags. The heterogeneous association refinement (HAR) module associates the visual regions, semantic elements and pre-learned visual prototypes in a heterogeneous graph to filter the error predictions and enrich the information. The causal inference with graphical masking (CIM) module applies self-learned masks to discover the causal nodes and edges in the heterogeneous graph to address the spurious association, forming robust causal representations. Experimental results from two benchmarking datasets show that VSCNet effectively builds the visual-semantic associations from images and leads to better performance than the state-of-the-art methods with enriched predictive information.

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NeurIPS Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Class-wise Balancing Data Replay for Federated Class-Incremental Learning

Zhuang Qi
Ying-Peng Tang
Lei Meng
Han Yu
Xiaoxiao Li
Xiangxu Meng

Federated Class Incremental Learning (FCIL) aims to collaboratively process continuously increasing incoming tasks across multiple clients. Among various approaches, data replay has become a promising solution, which can alleviate forgetting by reintroducing representative samples from previous tasks. However, their performance is typically limited by class imbalance, both within the replay buffer due to limited global awareness and between replayed and newly arrived classes. To address this issue, we propose a class-wise balancing data replay method for FCIL (FedCBDR), which employs a global coordination mechanism for class-level memory construction and reweights the learning objective to alleviate the aforementioned imbalances. Specifically, FedCBDR has two key components: 1) the global-perspective data replay module reconstructs global representations of prior task knowledge in a privacy-preserving manner, which then guides a class-aware and importance-sensitive sampling strategy to achieve balanced replay; 2) Subsequently, to handle class imbalance across tasks, the task-aware temperature scaling module adaptively adjusts the temperature of logits at both class and instance levels based on task dynamics, which reduces the model’s overconfidence in majority classes while enhancing its sensitivity to minority classes. Experimental results verified that FedCBDR achieves balanced class-wise sampling under heterogeneous data distributions and improves generalization under task imbalance between earlier and recent tasks, yielding a 2%-15% Top-1 accuracy improvement over six state-of-the-art methods.

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AAAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Cross-Silo Feature Space Alignment for Federated Learning on Clients with Imbalanced Data

Zhuang Qi
Lei Meng
Zhaochuan Li
Han Hu
Xiangxu Meng

Data imbalance across clients in federated learning often leads to different local feature space partitions, harming the global model's generalization ability. Existing methods either employ knowledge distillation to guide consistent local training or performs procedures to calibrate local models before aggregation. However, they overlook the ill-posed model aggregation caused by imbalanced representation learning. To address this issue, this paper presents a cross-silo feature space alignment method (FedFSA), which learns a unified feature space for clients to bridge inconsistency. Specifically, FedFSA consists of two modules, where the in-silo prototypical space learning (ISPSL) module uses predefined text embeddings to regularize representation learning, which can improve the distinguishability of representations on imbalanced data. Subsequently, it introduces a variance transfer approach to construct the prototypical space, which aids in calibrating minority classes feature distribution and provides necessary information for the cross-silo feature space alignment (CSFSA) module. Moreover, the CSFSA module utilizes augmented features learned from the ISPSL module to learn a generalized mapping and align these features from different sources into a common space, which mitigates the negative impact caused by imbalanced factors. Experimental results from three datasets verified that FedFSA improves the consistency between diverse spaces on imbalanced data, which results in superior performance compared to existing methods.

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AAAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Curriculum Conditioned Diffusion for Multimodal Recommendation

Yimeng Yang
Haokai Ma
Lei Meng
Shuo Xu
Ruobing Xie
Xiangxu Meng

Multimodal recommendation (MMRec) aims to integrate multimodal information of items to address the inherent data sparsity issue in collaborative-based recommendation. Traditional MMRec methods typically capture the structure-level item representations from the observed user behaviors within the multimodal graph, overlooking the potential impact of negative instances for personalized preference understanding. In light of the outstanding generative ability and step-by-step inference characteristic of Diffusion Models (DMs), we propose a Curriculum Conditioned Diffusion framework for Multimodal Recommendation (CCDRec), which precisely excavates the modality-aware distribution-level correlation among multi-modalities and elegantly integrates the reverse phase of DMs into negative sampling to highlight the most suitable instances in a curricular manner. Specifically, CCDRec proposes the Diffusion-controlled Multimodal Aligning module (DMA) to align multimodal knowledge with collaborative signals by capturing the fine-grained relationships among multi-modalities in the probabilistic distribution space. Furthermore, CCDRec designs the Negative-sensitive Diffusive Inferring module (NDI) to progressively synthesize the negative sample pool with diverse hardness to support the following knowledge-aware negative sampling. To gradually ramp up the training complexity, CCDRec further introduces a Curricular Negative Sampler (CNS) to tally the curriculum learning paradigm with the reverse phase of DMA, thereby adaptively sampling the gold-standard negative instances to enhance optimization. Extensive experiments on three datasets with four diverse backbones demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of our CCDRec. The visualization analyses also clarify the underlying mechanism of our DMA in multimodal representation alignment and CNS in curricular negative discovery. The code and the corresponding dataset will be uploaded in the Appendix.

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IJCAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Empowering Vision Transformers with Multi-Scale Causal Intervention for Long-Tailed Image Classification

Xiaoshuo Yan
Zhaochuan Li
Lei Meng
Zhuang Qi
Wei Wu
Zixuan Li
Xiangxu Meng

Causal inference has emerged as a promising approach to mitigate long-tail classification by handling the biases introduced by class imbalance. However, along with the change of advanced backbone models from Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to Visual Transformers (ViT), existing causal models may not achieve an expected performance gain. This paper investigates the influence of existing causal models on CNNs and ViT variants, highlighting that ViT's global feature representation makes it hard for causal methods to model associations between fine-grained features and predictions, which leads to difficulties in classifying tail classes with similar visual appearance. To address these issues, this paper proposes TSCNet, a two-stage causal modeling method to discover fine-grained causal associations through multi-scale causal interventions. Specifically, in the hierarchical causal representation learning stage (HCRL), it decouples the background and objects, applying backdoor interventions at both the patch and feature level to prevent model from using class-irrelevant areas to infer labels which enhances fine-grained causal representation. In the counterfactual logits' bias calibration stage (CLBC), it refines the optimization of model's decision boundary by adaptive constructing counterfactual balanced data distribution to remove the spurious associations in the logits caused by data distribution. Extensive experiments conducted on various long-tail benchmarks demonstrate that the proposed TSCNet can eliminate multiple biases introduced by data imbalance, which outperforms existing methods.

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IJCAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Federated Deconfounding and Debiasing Learning for Out-of-Distribution Generalization

Zhuang Qi
Sijin Zhou
Lei Meng
Han Hu
Han Yu
Xiangxu Meng

Attribute bias in federated learning (FL) typically leads local models to optimize inconsistently due to the learning of non-causal associations, resulting degraded performance. Existing methods either use data augmentation for increasing sample diversity or knowledge distillation for learning invariant representations to address this problem. However, they lack a comprehensive analysis of the inference paths, and the interference from confounding factors limits their performance. To address these limitations, we propose the Federated Deconfounding and Debiasing Learning (FedDDL) method. It constructs a structured causal graph to analyze the model inference process, and performs backdoor adjustment to eliminate confounding paths. Specifically, we design an intra-client deconfounding learning module for computer vision tasks to decouple background and objects, generating counterfactual samples that establish a connection between the background and any label, which stops the model from using the background to infer the label. Moreover, we design an inter-client debiasing learning module to construct causal prototypes to reduce the proportion of the background in prototype components. Notably, it bridges the gap between heterogeneous representations via causal prototypical regularization. Extensive experiments on 2 benchmarking datasets demonstrate that FedDDL significantly enhances the model capability to focus on main objects in unseen data, leading to 4. 5% higher Top-1 Accuracy on average over 9 state-of-the-art existing methods.

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ICML Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Federated Incomplete Multi-view Clustering with Globally Fused Graph Guidance

Guoqing Chao
Zhenghao Zhang
Lei Meng
Jie Wen
Dianhui Chu

Federated multi-view clustering has been proposed to mine the valuable information within multi-view data distributed across different devices and has achieved impressive results while preserving the privacy. Despite great progress, most federated multi-view clustering methods only used global pseudo-labels to guide the downstream clustering process and failed to exploit the global information when extracting features. In addition, missing data problem in federated multi-view clustering task is less explored. To address these problems, we propose a novel Federated Incomplete Multi-view Clustering method with globally Fused Graph guidance (FIMCFG). Specifically, we designed a dual-head graph convolutional encoder at each client to extract two kinds of underlying features containing global and view-specific information. Subsequently, under the guidance of the fused graph, the two underlying features are fused into high-level features, based on which clustering is conducted under the supervision of pseudo-labeling. Finally, the high-level features are uploaded to the server to refine the graph fusion and pseudo-labeling computation. Extensive experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of FIMCFG. Our code is publicly available at https: //github. com/PaddiHunter/FIMCFG.

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NeurIPS Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Global Prompt Refinement with Non-Interfering Attention Masking for One-Shot Federated Learning

Zhuang Qi
Yu Pan
Lei Meng
Sijin Zhou
Han Yu
Xiaoxiao Li
Xiangxu Meng

Federated Prompt Learning (FPL) enables communication-efficient adaptation by tuning lightweight prompts on top of frozen pre-trained models. Existing FPL methods typically rely on global information, which is only available after the second training round, to facilitate collaboration among client models. Therefore, they are inherently dependent on multi-round communication to fully exhibit their strengths. Moreover, existing one-shot federated learning methods typically focus on fitting seen tasks, but lack cross-task generalization. To bridge this gap, we propose the global prompt refinement with non-interfering attention masking (GPR-NIAM) method for one-shot FPL. The core idea is to design a masking mechanism that restricts excessive interaction between the original text embeddings and the learnable prompt embeddings. GPR-NIAM achieves this through the collaboration of two key modules. Firstly, the attention isolation module suppresses attention from the learnable prompt tokens to the original text tokens, and reweights the reverse attention which preserves generalization across tasks. Secondly, the cross-silo collaborative refinement module integrates decentralized visual knowledge into a unified base and calibrates the global prompt through multi-source cross-modal knowledge alignment, further mitigating the inconsistency caused by data heterogeneity. Extensive experiments conducted on ten benchmark datasets under two tasks show that GPR-NIAM outperforms eight state-of-the-art methods in both class-level and domain-level generalization.

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AAAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Hierarchically-Structured Open-Vocabulary Indoor Scene Synthesis with Pre-trained Large Language Model

Weilin Sun
Xinran Li
Manyi Li
Kai Xu
Xiangxu Meng
Lei Meng

Indoor scene synthesis aims to automatically produce plausible, realistic, and diverse 3D indoor scenes, especially given arbitrary user requirements. Recently, the promising generalization ability of pre-trained large language models (LLM) assist in open-vocabulary indoor scene synthesis. However, the challenge lies in converting the LLM-generated outputs into reasonable and physically feasible scene layouts. In this paper, we propose to generate hierarchically structured scene descriptions with LLM and then compute the scene layouts. Specifically, we train a hierarchy-aware network to infer the fine-grained relative positions between objects and design a divide-and-conquer optimization to solve for scene layouts. The advantages of using hierarchically structured scene representation are two-fold. First, the hierarchical structure provides a rough grounding for object arrangement, which alleviates contradictory placements with dense relations and enhances the generalization ability of the network to infer fine-grained placements. Second, it naturally supports the divide-and-conquer optimization, by first arranging the sub-scenes and then the entire scene, to more effectively solve for a feasible layout. We conduct extensive comparison experiments and ablation studies with both qualitative and quantitative evaluations to validate the effectiveness of our key designs with the hierarchically structured scene representation. Our approach can generate more reasonable scene layouts while better aligned with the user requirements and LLM descriptions. We also present open-vocabulary scene synthesis and interactive scene design results to show the strength of our approach in the applications.

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IROS Conference 2025 Conference Paper

IMM-MOT: A Novel 3D Multi-object Tracking Framework with Interacting Multiple Model Filter

Xiaohong Liu
Xulong Zhao
Gang Liu
Zili Wu
Tao Wang
Lei Meng
Yuhan Wang

3D Multi-Object Tracking (MOT) provides the trajectories of surrounding objects, assisting robots or vehicles in smarter path planning and obstacle avoidance. Existing 3D MOT methods based on the Tracking-by-Detection framework typically use a single motion model to track an object throughout its entire tracking process. However, objects may change their motion patterns due to variations in the surrounding environment. In this paper, we introduce the Interacting Multiple Model filter in IMM-MOT, which accurately fits the complex motion patterns of individual objects, overcoming the limitation of single-model tracking in existing approaches. In addition, we incorporate a Damping Window mechanism into the trajectory lifecycle management, leveraging the continuous association status of trajectories to control their creation and termination, reducing the occurrence of overlooked low-confidence true targets. Furthermore, we propose the Distance-Based Score Enhancement module, which enhances the differentiation between false positives and true positives by adjusting detection scores, thereby improving the effectiveness of the Score Filter. On the NuScenes Val dataset, IMM-MOT outperforms most other single-modal models using 3D point clouds, achieving an AMOTA of 73. 8%. Our project is available at https://github.com/Ap01lo/IMM-MOT.

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IJCAI Conference 2025 Conference Paper

Semantic-Space-Intervened Diffusive Alignment for Visual Classification

Zixuan Li
Lei Meng
Guoqing Chao
Wei Wu
Yimeng Yang
Xiaoshuo Yan
Zhuang Qi
Xiangxu Meng

Cross-modal alignment is an effective approach to improving visual classification. Existing studies typically enforce a one-step mapping that uses deep neural networks to project the visual features to mimic the distribution of textual features. However, they typically face difficulties in finding such a projection due to the two modalities in both the distribution of class-wise samples and the range of their feature values. To address this issue, this paper proposes a novel Semantic-Space-Intervened Diffusive Alignment method, termed SeDA, models a semantic space as a bridge in the visual-to-textual projection, considering both types of features share the same class-level information in classification. More importantly, a bi-stage diffusion framework is developed to enable the progressive alignment between the two modalities. Specifically, SeDA first employs a Diffusion-Controlled Semantic Learner to model the semantic feature space of visual features by constraining the interactive features of the diffusion model and the category centers of visual features. In the later stage of SeDA, the Diffusion-Controlled Semantic Translator focuses on learning the distribution of textual features from the semantic space. Meanwhile, the Progressive Feature Interaction Network introduces stepwise feature interactions at each alignment step, progressively integrating textual information into mapped features. Experimental results show that SeDA achieves stronger cross-modal feature alignment, leading to superior performance over existing methods across multiple scenarios.

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AAAI Conference 2024 Conference Paper

Plug-In Diffusion Model for Sequential Recommendation

Haokai Ma
Ruobing Xie
Lei Meng
Xin Chen
Xu Zhang
Leyu Lin
Zhanhui Kang

Pioneering efforts have verified the effectiveness of the diffusion models in exploring the informative uncertainty for recommendation. Considering the difference between recommendation and image synthesis tasks, existing methods have undertaken tailored refinements to the diffusion and reverse process. However, these approaches typically use the highest-score item in corpus for user interest prediction, leading to the ignorance of the user's generalized preference contained within other items, thereby remaining constrained by the data sparsity issue. To address this issue, this paper presents a novel Plug-in Diffusion Model for Recommendation (PDRec) framework, which employs the diffusion model as a flexible plugin to jointly take full advantage of the diffusion-generating user preferences on all items. Specifically, PDRec first infers the users' dynamic preferences on all items via a time-interval diffusion model and proposes a Historical Behavior Reweighting (HBR) mechanism to identify the high-quality behaviors and suppress noisy behaviors. In addition to the observed items, PDRec proposes a Diffusion-based Positive Augmentation (DPA) strategy to leverage the top-ranked unobserved items as the potential positive samples, bringing in informative and diverse soft signals to alleviate data sparsity. To alleviate the false negative sampling issue, PDRec employs Noise-free Negative Sampling (NNS) to select stable negative samples for ensuring effective model optimization. Extensive experiments and analyses on four datasets have verified the superiority of the proposed PDRec over the state-of-the-art baselines and showcased the universality of PDRec as a flexible plugin for commonly-used sequential encoders in different recommendation scenarios. The code is available in https://github.com/hulkima/PDRec.

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AAAI Conference 2024 Conference Paper

RewriteLM: An Instruction-Tuned Large Language Model for Text Rewriting

Lei Shu
Liangchen Luo
Jayakumar Hoskere
Yun Zhu
Yinxiao Liu
Simon Tong
Jindong Chen
Lei Meng

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities in creative tasks such as storytelling and E-mail generation. However, as LLMs are primarily trained on final text results rather than intermediate revisions, it might be challenging for them to perform text rewriting tasks. Most studies in the rewriting tasks focus on a particular transformation type within the boundaries of single sentences. In this work, we develop new strategies for instruction tuning and reinforcement learning to better align LLMs for cross-sentence rewriting tasks using diverse wording and structures expressed through natural languages including 1) generating rewriting instruction data from Wiki edits and public corpus through instruction generation and chain-of-thought prompting; 2) collecting comparison data for reward model training through a new ranking function. To facilitate this research, we introduce OpenRewriteEval, a novel benchmark covers a wide variety of rewriting types expressed through natural language instructions. Our results show significant improvements over a variety of baselines.

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IJCAI Conference 2024 Conference Paper

SeeDRec: Sememe-based Diffusion for Sequential Recommendation

Haokai Ma
Ruobing Xie
Lei Meng
Yimeng Yang
Xingwu Sun
Zhanhui Kang

Inspired by the power of Diffusion Models (DM) verified in various fields, some pioneering works have started to explore DM in recommendation. However, these prevailing endeavors commonly implement diffusion on item indices, leading to the increasing time complexity, the lack of transferability, and the inability to fully harness item semantic information. To tackle these challenges, we propose SeeDRec, a sememe-based diffusion framework for sequential recommendation (SR). Specifically, inspired by the notion of sememe in NLP, SeeDRec first defines a similar concept of recommendation sememe to represent the minimal interest unit and upgrades the specific diffusion objective from the item level to the sememe level. With the Sememe-to-Interest Diffusion Model (S2IDM), SeeDRec can accurately capture the user's diffused interest distribution learned from both local interest evolution and global interest generalization while maintaining low computational costs. Subsequently, an Interest-aware Prompt-enhanced (IPE) strategy is proposed to better guide each user's sequential behavior modeling via the learned user interest distribution. Extensive experiments on nine SR datasets and four cross-domain SR datasets verify its effectiveness and universality. The code is available in https: //github. com/hulkima/SeeDRec.

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IJCAI Conference 2023 Conference Paper

Compositional Zero-Shot Artistic Font Synthesis

Xiang Li
Lei Wu
Changshuo Wang
Lei Meng
Xiangxu Meng

Recently, many researchers have made remarkable achievements in the field of artistic font synthesis, with impressive glyph style and effect style in the results. However, due to less exploration in style disentanglement, it is difficult for existing methods to envision a kind of unseen style (glyph-effect) compositions of artistic font, and thus can only learn the seen style compositions. To solve this problem, we propose a novel compositional zero-shot artistic font synthesis gan (CAFS-GAN), which allows the synthesis of unseen style compositions by exploring the visual independence and joint compatibility of encoding semantics between glyph and effect. Specifically, we propose two contrast-based style encoders to achieve style disentanglement due to glyph and effect intertwining in the image. Meanwhile, to preserve more glyph and effect detail, we propose a generator based on hierarchical dual styles AdaIN to reorganize content-styles representations from structure to texture gradually. Extensive experiments demonstrate the superiority of our model in generating high-quality artistic font images with unseen style compositions against other state-of-the-art methods. The source code and data is available at moonlight03. github. io/CAFS-GAN/.

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AAAI Conference 2020 Conference Paper

Multi-Source Domain Adaptation for Visual Sentiment Classification

Chuang Lin
Sicheng Zhao
Lei Meng
Tat-Seng Chua

Existing domain adaptation methods on visual sentiment classiﬁcation typically are investigated under the singlesource scenario, where the knowledge learned from a source domain of sufﬁcient labeled data is transferred to the target domain of loosely labeled or unlabeled data. However, in practice, data from a single source domain usually have a limited volume and can hardly cover the characteristics of the target domain. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-source domain adaptation (MDA) method, termed Multi-source Sentiment Generative Adversarial Network (MSGAN), for visual sentiment classiﬁcation. To handle data from multiple source domains, it learns to ﬁnd a uniﬁed sentiment latent space where data from both the source and target domains share a similar distribution. This is achieved via cycle consistent adversarial learning in an end-to-end manner. Extensive experiments conducted on four benchmark datasets demonstrate that MSGAN signiﬁcantly outperforms the state-of-theart MDA approaches for visual sentiment classiﬁcation.

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