JBHI Journal 2026 Journal Article
Encoding and Decoding of Brain Dynamic Functional Connectivity for ADHD Diagnosis
- Deepank Girish
- Yi Hao Chan
- Sukrit Gupta
- Jing Xia
- Jagath C. Rajapakse
Recent studies have demonstrated strong associations between the changes in dynamic functional connectivity (FC) and both behavioral and cognitive functions. The sliding window technique is the most widely used method for evaluating dynamic FC; however, it faces two key challenges: distributional shifts across windows and high dimensionality, as FC is computed across windows of the entire time series. To address these issues, we propose BRAINMAP (Bi-level Representation using Attention for INterpretability with Mamba-Aided Prediction) to model the dynamic FC of the brain. BRAINMAP employs the Optimal Transport technique to correct distributional shifts across sliding windows and leverages Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) in conjunction with a hybrid approach that integrates an attention mechanism and the Mamba block to effectively capture spatiotemporal features for functional MR images. Finally, we introduce a novel Top-K sliding window feature selection algorithm to induce sparsity in dynamic FC. We conducted an extensive evaluation of our model for diagnosing Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) using three resting-state fMRI datasets: ADHD-200, UCLA, and CNI-TLC, which comprise a total of 447 subjects with ADHD and 845 typically developing controls. Our architecture outperformed existing state-of-the-art dynamic FC models in ADHD detection, achieving improvements ranging from 3% to 12% across the three datasets. We demonstrate that our proposed model produces robust biomarkers, most notably the connection between the dorsal attention network and the visual network. Using an association study, we further establish the clinical relevance of the identified biomarkers.